This century entwined cacao consumption with the Mayo Chinchipe-Marañón culture of 5,300 years ago. Genomic studies hail their Upper Ecuadorian Amazon region as cacao’s origin, connecting ancient strains to the rare Nacional variety, a ‘Fine Flavour cacao’ revered for its distinctive sensory qualities. Cacao’s millennial journey spanned the Amazon Valley, crossed the Andes, and reached the Pacific coast, spreading to Mesoamerica. The Olmecs crafted and consumed cacao beverages, a tradition that endured with the Maya and Aztecs, who wove cacao into daily life as a revitalizing drink, a sacred elixir, and even currency. Its deep theological roots are reflected in the tree's scientific name, ‘Theobroma cacao’ (Linnæus, 1740), which, in the Mexica empire’s Náhuatl, was called ‘cacahuacuáhuitl,’ its fruit ‘cacahuacintli’ (‘cacao ear’), and its seeds just ‘cacao’ or ‘cacaoatl.’ The word 'chocolate' likely derives from this term, with 'ātl' meaning water, or from a blend of this and 'xococ' ('cosa agra,' sour). Countless trees were sacrificed to paper for this etymology. It traversed the seas in assorted iterations to name cacao-based beverages: 'Cocoatl' (1550s), 'Chachanatl' (1556), and 'Chocolatl' (1570s) and the Spaniards swiftly tamed the flow with their 'e.’

First recorded as ‘coyn’ in Middle English (1150–1500), from Old French ‘coigne’ (‘wedge, die for stamping’) and Latin ‘cuneus’ (‘wedge’). It replaced Middle English ‘mynt’ (from Old English ‘mynet’), from Latin ‘monēta.’
A standardized metal piece issued by a governing authority, marked to indicate its value. Beyond its economic function, it asserts control, upholds social hierarchies, and projects power and cultural identity. Staters (’weight’), one of the earliest known coins, were struck by the Ancient Greeks around the 7th century BCE in what is now western Turkey. Made of electrum, a natural alloy of gold and silver, these pieces had nugget-like shapes with designs (‘types’) on the obverse and incuse punches on the reverse. “…but coinage (νόμισμα, nomisma) has come to serve, by convention, as a substitute for needs. For this reason, it is called nomisma — because it exists not by nature, but by law (νόμῳ, nomos), and it is within our power to alter it and render it useless.”²

“At in Cacaua Quahuitl, magna deteguntur humanæ fortis volumina. In verteri siquidem Orbe, perq. prisca illa tempora, quæ vitæ hominum erant hecessaria, atque adeo apud alios cumdeessent quærenda, non rependebantur ære. Nondum aureus argenteusuè nummus circumferebatur, aut pecudum, Regumue, aut Principum simulacra metallis cernebantur insculpta. rerum viuebatur permutatione, vt olim factum cecinit Homerus, & fructuum quos recondebant facta alijs copia, mutuum ferebatur auxilium. tandem æra percussa, atque signata sunt, & mille rerum effigies numismatis impressæ conspiciebantur. at in nouum hunc mundum nunquam auritiæ signa penetrauerant, aut caput erexerat ambitio, donec nostri, velis ventouè deuecti, impetum fecere. non vsque adeo splendebant illis argentum atque aurum quibus præcipuè abundabant; auium pulcherrimarum plumæ, lintea quædam gossippina, & gemmæ, quæ ea fert affatim sua sponte tellus, erat diutiarum, & copiarum summa. nondum Armillæ, torques, aut bracialia, nisi fortassis concinnata è floribus, plebi innotuerant, aut Margaritæ erant illis in pretio. nudi penè incedebant, vitam degebant hilarem. neque vastos congerendi thesauros, aut rei familiaris augendæ, veluti de futuro parum sollicitos, cura euigilabat. in diem viuebatur, indulgebatur genio, humili sorte, sed tranquilla & felici, & potissimis naturæ bonis magna cum iucunditate potibantur. Semen Cacauatl erat illis pro nummo, & eo præcipua vitæ præmio, cum opus erat, comparabantur. duratq. in hodiernum vsque diem non paucis in locis hic mos. Quid ni? Quando quibusdam orientalium gentium Cochleæ Veneriæ, & alijs folia quarumdam arborum, & alijs alia pecuniæ gerunt vices. quin & ex eodem semine, quo commercia inibantur, feruebant emporia, & in varios dominos illius ope mercimonia transferebantur. concinnabantq. potum, nodum vini consiciendi ratione reperta, cum tamen nonnulla Vitium syluestrium, ac genera labruscarum apud illos suanpre natura in syluis passim prouenirent, arboresque, & frutices, quibus aduoluenbantur, vuis, acinisq. variorum colorum, & pampinis condecorarent, atque gratuitate sua, incuruarent.”

Hernandez, F. (ca. 1570–1577). De cacaua quahuit seu arbore cacai. In: De materia medica Novae Hispaniae Philippi Secundi Hispaniarum ac Indiarum regis invictissimi iussu. Manuscript, transcribed by Recchi, L. A. [El Escorial, Madrid? : s.n., 1582?], ff.64l–66l. Originally in Latin.

“Verily, in the cacao tree, great things disclose the volumes of human strength. Indeed, in the ancient world, and in those early times, when the necessities of human life were essential, and even when goods had to be sought from others in their absence, they were not exchanged for money. Neither gold nor silver coins were yet in circulation, nor were the images of cattle, kings, or princes stamped in metal. People lived by barter, as Homer once sang of the past, and with the abundance of fruits they stored for others, mutual aid was carried out. Finally, metals were struck and stamped, and thousands of images of things were seen impressed on coins. However, into this new world, never had the signs of avarice penetrated, nor had ambition raised its head, until our people, carried by wind and sail, made their assault. Did not glitter so much for them the silver and gold, which particularly abounded; feathers of the most beautiful birds, certain cotton cloths, and gems, which the earth freely produces in abundance, were the sum of their wealth and riches. Not yet armlets, necklaces, or bracelets, unless perhaps those made from flowers, had become known to the common people, nor were pearls of value to them. They mostly marched naked, living a cheerful life. Neither did they amass vast treasures nor increase family wealth, being little concerned about the future, nor did worry ever arise. They lived by the day, indulging in their inclinations with humble fortune, but tranquil and happy, and enjoying the greatest natural goods with great delight. Cacao seeds (Cacauatl) were for them as money, and they were the main reward of life. When needed, they were exchanged and this custom persists to this day in many places. Why Not? When to some Eastern peoples Venus' shells, and others leaves of certain trees, and to others other things take the place of money. Moreover,from this cacao seed, by which commerce was begun, they conducted trading and goods were transferred to various masters with its aid, and they prepared a beverage with a method discovered similar to the making of wine, although certain wild vines and types of grapes naturally grew in abundance in their forests, along with trees and shrubs – to which they clung – laden with fruits of various colours and decorated with leaves, bending gracefully with their own bounty.”

Hernandez, F. (ca. 1570–1577). De cacaua quahuit seu arbore cacai. In: De materia medica Novae Hispaniae Philippi Secundi Hispaniarum ac Indiarum regis invictissimi iussu. Manuscript, transcribed by Recchi, L. A. [El Escorial, Madrid? : s.n., 1582?], ff.64l–66l. Originally in Latin, translated by antipodes café, 2024.

In ancient Mesoamerica, cacao seeds were treasured, entwined with the divine. The Postclassic Maya honored Ek Chuah, their merchant and cacao deity, with an April festival. These precious seeds were evoked through the metaphor ‘yollotli, eztli’ (heart, blood). While their exploitation was reserved for the elite, by the Late Classic period, cacao was consumed across all walks of life. Yet, it was never drunk thoughtlessly or without permission—otherwise, heart and blood.4

Juan Moreno served Christopher Columbus in 1492, becoming the first African descendant to reach the ‘New World’ in modern times. Though a free man, he endured physical punishment by the Admiral – as revealed in the 1500 imprisonment of the latter for inhumane actions while governing Hispaniola (modern-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic). On 16 September 1501, Spanish monarchs authorized the new governor of the island to import African slaves on his colonizing expedition, marking their first official step toward institutionalizing the transatlantic slave trade in the Americas. The following year, Columbus also embarked backed by the monarchs. However, for his fourth voyage he was instructed not to stop at Hispaniola or take slaves. During this exploratory mission, Spanish conquerors had their first clear encounter with cacao seeds when they captured a canoe near Guanaja Island: “(…)and for their provisions, they carried roots and grain, which are eaten by those at Hispaniola, and a certain wine made from maize, similar to the beer of England, and many of those almonds, which the people of New Spain use as currency; these seemed to be highly esteemed by them, because when their load was placed on the ship, I noticed that if any of these almonds fell, everyone immediately bent down to pick it up, as if they had lost an eye:(…)”
After the Admiral's death, Moreno became known as Juan Portugués and participated in the colonization of Central America.5

It was during Hernán Cortés' conquest that the Spanish first recognized the significance of cacao, leading to its introduction to Trinidad (ca. 1525) and later to the rest of the Caribbean islands. By then, Soconusco, Chiapas, was the center of cacao production.6

For the conquest of Mexico, few African slaves participated due to their elevated cost. However, in some expeditions, African slaves outnumbered the Spaniards. In these cases, they could earn their freedom and, in some instances, land as a reward for their contributions. One notable example is Juan Valiente, who arrived in Mexico in 1505. After convincing his owner to allow him to join various expeditions, he participated in the conquest of Chile in 1533. As a result, he was granted lands in Santiago and an encomienda –an exploitative system in which the Spanish crown granted settlers the legal right to extract tribute or labor from Indigenous peoples, often working them to the point of death.7

The techniques for preparing chocolate were brought to Spain, possibly at the Monasterio de Piedra in 1534, though the specifics of this event remain debated. These methods were closely guarded by Spanish authorities.8

UNDER CONSTRUCTION